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Nicaragua's leaders claim the new canal will transform their country from an impoverished Central American backwater to a global trade powerhouse, create hundreds of thousands of jobs, and boost annual economic growth to a world-beating For the Chinese, having a canal capable of handling huge bulk carriers would mean easier access to Venezuelan oil and Brazilian iron ore and soybeans, not to mention a valuable geopolitical foothold in the Americas.

But many economists, scientists, and sociologists say that the time for a Nicaraguan canal has long since lapsed, that the waterway—if it's ever completed—will end up being the world's costliest boondoggle. The Panama Canal, they say, which has gigantic new locks scheduled to be operational next year, is more than capable of meeting future demand. They also cite projections for global warming that suggest ships could traverse an ice-free Arctic by the middle of the century, further reducing demand for passage through Central America.

And they warn that a canal through Nicaragua could be an environmental disaster, destroying more than a million acres of rain forest, jeopardizing Lake Nicaragua—Central America's largest source of fresh water—and disrupting the lives of indigenous people, while delivering few, if any, of the promised benefits to ordinary Nicaraguans. Nine months before ground breaking is set to start on the biggest and costliest civil engineering project in Central American history, such basic details as the very design of the canal, what route it will take across the country, and precisely where financing will come from remain a mystery—at least to the general public.

Little is known about the company that's been granted the concession, or about its enigmatic chairman and chief executive, year-old Wang Jing. In a rare interview in the Financial Times last June , he described himself as "a very ordinary Chinese citizen" who lives in Beijing with his mother, younger brother, and daughter. His profile on the HKND website states that he is on the board of 20 companies, doing business in 35 countries. He is described as having made his pile in telecommunications. While his domestic ventures appear robust, his companies' projects overseas have met with "spotty" success , according to a story published in the South China Morning Post not long after he signed the deal to build the canal.

There were no other bidders. How a firm with no proven record in heavy engineering, let alone experience with a project of this scale and complexity, could have been awarded the canal concession, and why such a multibillion-dollar public works project was not put out to open tender, are questions economists, engineers, and environmentalists are asking. By any reckoning, Wang Jing and his backers—widely believed to be the Chinese government—have landed a sweet deal.

Under the agreement, HKND has exclusive rights to build and operate the canal for 50 years, extendable for another The company can keep all the income, will be exempt from taxes for a century, and will enjoy a breathtaking degree of legal immunity. The Nicaraguan government assumes liability for any cleanup costs for environmental damage and irrevocably waives its own sovereign immunity, which means HKND is free to sue for any loss or damages. The terms of the deal are so generous and far-reaching that parts of Nicaragua's constitution had to be rewritten to allow for them.

In exchange for all this, HKND agreed to give the Nicaraguan government a one percent shareholding in the canal for each year of operation. HKND will have carte blanche to put the canal anywhere it sees fit, acquire any land needed for the project by right of eminent domain, and hold rights to whatever minerals are found during construction. Huete-Pérez , president of the Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences. Normally by law you would have to produce a full environmental impact assessment to proceed with such a project, and go through the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.

But with this, it all rests in the hands of the Canal Authority [the local body charged with overseeing construction]. Instead of commissioning an independent environmental study of its own, the Nicaraguan government will rely on one contracted out by HKND to a U. HKND is under no obligation to make public the results. Neither HKND nor Environmental Resources Management responded to requests for interviews, but HKND says on its website that the company "is committed to explore this area with great care and to adhere to international standards of environmental responsibility as it proceeds.

Huete-Pérez and Axel Meyer , an evolutionary biologist at the University of Konstanz in Germany, who has been conducting field research in Nicaragua since , coauthored a piece in Nature last month highlighting the canal's risks to the environment. They called for an independent assessment of the project by an international panel of experts. They're also not known for being particularly good guardians of the environment. The probable route of the canal would cut through the northern corner of Cerro Silva Nature Reserve, and, according to Huete-Pérez and Meyer, in the entire canal corridor nearly a million acres of rain forest and wetlands will be destroyed.

The reserve contains the second largest rain forest in the Western Hemisphere, after the Amazon Basin forest. Also affected will be the Indio Maíz Biological Reserve , 1, square miles 4, square kilometers of similarly pristine tropical dry forest along the San Juan River. The San Juan itself would need to be dammed to regulate the water needed to operate the locks in the canal. Mangroves and sea turtle nesting sites on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts would be bulldozed, coral reefs destroyed, and the migratory corridors of jaguars and other animals interrupted. The lives of indigenous people, such as the Rama, Garifuna, Miskito, and Ulwa, would be undermined or destroyed, with hundreds of villages evacuated to make way for the canal and its accompanying infrastructure.

And then there's Lake Nicaragua, known locally as Cocibolca. Whichever route the canal takes, it will certainly include the expanse of Lake Nicaragua. At just over 3, square miles 8, square kilometers , it's the largest lake in Central America and a vital potential reservoir for drinking water. As little as 2 percent of the lake's outflow into the Río San Juan could satisfy the clean-water needs of Nicaragua's six million people.

The canal could jeopardize that freshwater resource, warns Salvadore Montenegro-Guillén, a professor of hydrology at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua in Managua. Links to the ocean could introduce salinity; oil spills could contaminate the water. Another risk is that freighters pumping bilgewater into the lake could release invasive species. That alone could devastate an ecosystem considered a poster child for evolutionary biology, with its rich assemblages of endemic fish that have evolved in the ,year-old lake. The canal will present monumental engineering challenges. To make practical their vision of the world's largest container ships steaming across the lake, the Chinese say they'll dredge a channel 30 yards 27 meters deep, yards meters wide, and 56 miles 90 kilometers long.

While dredging is part and parcel of maintaining a canal to keep it silt-free, the amount of work that would be required to keep a Nicaraguan canal from silting up would be extremely costly. In the spring of , as debate flared in the U. Senate over whether to choose Panama or Nicaragua for a new canal, an enterprising PR man for the Panamanian lobby planted a story in the press that Nicaragua's iconic volcano, Momotombo , was erupting. Protests by the Nicaraguan lobby that Momotombo was in fact dormant fell on deaf ears, thanks to one of the country's postage stamps , depicting an apparently lively Momotombo puffing majestically over the jungles near Lake Managua.

The Panamanian lobby made sure a copy of the stamp was sent around to every U. Then, one month before the senate vote, an eruption on the Caribbean island of Martinique killed 30, people and destroyed much of the island. That swayed fence-sitters, and Panama won the canal by eight votes. It was a good call, Montenegro-Guillén says. Nicaragua "is seismically active, and the hydraulic design of the canal, regardless of route chosen, relies on the construction of a dam. The risk of an earthquake collapsing a structure that's holding back 16 million cubic meters of water is quite high.

And that would be catastrophic. Despite the slew of concerns, most Nicaraguans seem to favor the canal. This is a very poor country, and they have been told the canal is going to bring them jobs and prosperity. Adolfo Acevedo , one of Nicaragua's most respected economists, warns that the benefits will at best be modest. Species identification was confirmed with the presence of the dark left jaw, and the three ridges on the rostrum. At about 4 m, the animal would have been no older than a yearling. According to local fishermen it was hit by a boat, but this could not be inferred from the pictures collected in the field.

The individual was eaten by local communities. Images of the young individual revealed the presence of linear scars on its flank. No body measurements were taken of either animal, but measurements of the skeleton of the young individual showed the length to be 10 m. Animals from this population migrate north from Antarctic waters along the coast of South America in the austral winter, and sometimes reach Nicaragua De Weerdt et al. Stranded humpback whales have been reported in neighbouring Guatemala Cabrera et al. Because of the absence of postmortem examination, it was not possible to determine whether linear scars found on the stranded juvenile reported here were acquired pre- or post-mortem.

The coastal distribution of humpback whales coincides with areas of high anthropogenic activity, making them vulnerable to fishing gear entanglements Reeves et al. Here we report the stranding of sixteen individual animals of seven different species along the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua. Out of the seven stranded species we identified in Nicaragua, all species with the exception of the blue whale have stranded in Guatemala Cabrera et al. Natural Reserve of Padre Ramos on the northern Pacific coast. Decomposition state varied between strandings, and the cause of strandings could not be clearly identified for any specimen due to the lack of necropsies.

Necropsies should be used in future monitoring to provide additional data and, where possible, to determine the cause of death. This information is crucial especially for species and small populations with high conservation priority. Natural diseases can be the cause of strandings for cetacean species, as observed in Costa Rica, where cases of brucellosis were reported in different dolphin species Oliveira et al.

Visual detection of diseases is often difficult, making it hard to determine whether disease contributed to a stranding event in absence of a necropsy. In addition to natural causes, anthropogenic activities can be the ultimate cause of stranding events; these can include boat collisions, fisheries bycatch, and also potentially chemical and sound pollution Reynolds et al. While boat collisions and bycatch are sometimes obvious even in an external examination, other anthropogenic activities are difficult to identify externally without necropsy, such as chemical and sound pollution and the acoustic effect of underwater detonation Reynolds et al. The presence of the longline observed with one pantropical spotted dolphin suggests that fisheries can have an impact on animals in these waters.

Humpback whale entanglement in fishing lines were observed in in Padre Ramos and in in San Juan del Sur Pers. The illegal use of home-made bombs as a fishing technique along most Nicaraguan shorelines except for the Department of Rivas could potentially pose an additional threat to marine mammals. No formal studies exist on the impact of these specific explosive devices on acoustic or other behaviour, but studies on seal bombs used in purse-seine fisheries suggest a potential impact on, and potentially physical damage to cetaceans Baumann-Pickering et al. Recommendations for future work in this region include coastal surveys for strandings, obtaining detailed information on stranded animals from improved necropsies, the collection and analysis of tissue samples to assess health and diseases, and assessment for possible influences of human interactions on stranded animals.

Cetacean strandings potentially involve risk for humans. People attempting to render assistance to stranded animals are at risk of injury and possibly even death if the animals thrash, and disease can be transmitted from contact with tissue or bodily fluids. In addition, the consumption of animals by local communities is concerning for a variety of reasons. These animals carry diseases that are potentially transmissible to humans through contact or ingestion. Trace elements, heavy metals and pesticides are specific contaminants found in marine mammals that can potentially impact human health. Regulations governing strandings should be established to mitigate these threats to human health.

Status review of the humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae under the Endangered Species Act. Google Scholar. Braulik G, Reeves R. Stenella longirostris. Cetaceans of the Pacific of Guatemala: Fifty years of history. Ciencia Tecnología y Salud. Article Google Scholar. Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps de Blainville, : dwarf sperm whale Kogia simus Owen. Carr T, Bonde RK. Tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis occurs in Nicaragua, km north of its previously known range.

Mar Mam Sci. Cooke JG. Balaenoptera musculus. Megaptera novaeangliae. Sotalia fluviatilis. Mammalian Species. Feeding of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua. Northernmost records of Southern Hemisphere humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae migrating from the Antarctic Peninsula to the Pacific coast of Nicaragua. Conference: 31st annual conference of the European Cetacean Society. Fiedler PC. The annual cycle and biological effects of the Costa Rica Dome. Deep-Sea Research I. Marine mammals ashore: a field guide for strandings. Baltimore: National Aquarium in Baltimore; Using genome-wide SNPs to detect structure in high-diversity and low-divergence populations of severely impacted eastern tropical Pacific spinner Stenella longirostris and pantropical spotted dolphins S.

Fron in Mar Sci. Movements of North Pacific blue whales during the feeding season off Southern California and their southern fall migration. Mar Mamm Sci. Parasites of cetaceans stranded on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Vet para. The significance of stranding data as indicators of cetacean populations at sea: modelling the drift of cetacean carcasses. Ecol Indic. Perrin WF. Spinner Dolphin: Stenella longirostris. In: Encyclopedia of marine mammals.

Academic Press; Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris Gray, Killer whales preying on a blue whale calf on the Costa Rica Dome: genetics, morphometrics, vocalizations and composition of the group. Journal of Cet Res Man. Pyenson ND. The high fidelity of the cetacean stranding record: insights into measuring diversity by integrating taphonomy and macroecology, Proc. B: Biol. Quintana-Rizzo E. Whales and Porpoises — — Cetacean Specialist Group; Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus distribution in the Eastern Tropical Pacific.

Marine mammal conservation. End Species Res. Cetacean strandings in Costa Rica — Behavioral observations of the dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus. Sotalia guianensis. Co-occurrence of beaked whale strandings and naval sonar in the Mariana Islands, western Pacific. Proceedings of the Royal Society B ; Experimental field studies to measure behavioral responses of cetaceans to sonar. Kogia sima. First records of Balaenoptera edeni Cetartiodactyla: Balaenopteridae in the coast of Oaxaca. Mexico Therya. Recent sightings of the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus. Can Field Nat. Balaenoptera edeni. Ziphius cavirostris. Kiszka J, Braulik G.

Stenella attenuata. Download references. Dive Nicaragua for sharing the measurements of the humpback whale skeleton. Thanks to Christian Shane for sharing his experience and observation on the Cuvier's beaked whale. Thanks to Dave Anderson and Robin Baird for help with species identification of Kogia sima , Jose Baires for sharing his observations on humpback whales in El Salvador and James Mead for the unidentified dolphin. Thanks to the Bilwy community for sharing their observation on Sotalia guianensis. Thanks to Tamara Desfontaines and Emily Cunningham for proofreading.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. All authors approved the final manuscript. Correspondence to Joëlle De Weerdt. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.

If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

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